Freud’s Theory on the Prometheus Myth

Freud sought to explain many concepts of the human condition with reference to mythology. For instance, he believed that our consciousness, or psyche, was made up of different levels, namely the ‘id’, ‘ego’ and ‘superego’.

Figure 1

Freud’s detailed discussion of the Prometheus myth, known as ‘The Mastery of Fire’ theory, concerned his interpretation of the subconscious manifesting itself in mythology. Freud believed that the conflict between the conscious and the unconscious mind explained psychological abnormalities in humans ^[1]. However, this theory subsequently ‘failed to gain credibility within the psychoanalytic profession’^[2] as it may well be argued that Freud was trying to force his point.

Firstly, the fennel stalk, which Prometheus used to steal fire back from the gods, is a supposedly a representation of phallic imagery and also used to symbolise water. By taking fire away from men Zeus is essentially destroying it for men, similar to how water destroys fire. The fennel stalk can also be seen as a challenge to Zeus’ lightening, another phallic image, which originates as fire. We are left with the image of water versus fire, however this supposed conflict is a weak theme to focus on. Hesiod’s work demonstrates that the conflict is not necessarily fire against water, but rather god against man.

Man’s desires are highlighted in this myth and Freud decided that if man wanted fire, then he must overcome his desire to urinate on it. Freud believed that this conflict was born out of a repressed homosexual desire, however, by harbouring this belief he completely disregards a major part of Greek culture in antiquity. Same-sex relationships between an Erstes and Eromenos, known as pederasty, were widespread in antiquity and were considered educational ^[3]. They were acknowledged in Greek society, rather than repressed or unaccepted. These relationships primarily took place in upper class society, due to social conditions of the time, for many peasants mingled more freely with the opposite sex, such as in market places, leading to a greater emphasis on what we understand today as heterosexuality. However, since the upper class brought the sexes up separately in aristocracy, homosexual relationships were more common and were seen as a normal stage of life.

These relationships are prominent in Greek literature and myths, from Plato’s Symposium where Alcibiades declares his love for Socrates, to the story of Zeus’ abduction of Ganymede to become his lover.

The gods, primarily Zeus, who Hesiod describes in this myth, are symbolic of what Freud named the ‘id’, a part of our subconscious responsible for primitive desires and instinct, because they are the embodiment of human desire. Freud draws a comparison between Prometheus and Zeus’ battle of wills and the power struggle between the ego and the id. As the liver was supposedly seen as the source of desire and passion, when Zeus becomes wrathful and punishes Prometheus by sentencing him to have his liver pecked out and destroyed by an eagle, this punishment could possibly be viewed as mans struggle to repress instinctive and subconscious desires.

Figure 2

Morales comments that perhaps if Freud had chosen to apply this theory to a wider range of myths, or even to the female psyche, then we may have paid more attention to his hypothesis, as Freud seems to be quite selective about the elements of this myth he chooses to focus on ^[4]. For instance Freud ignores the creation of Pandora, a prominent part of this myth. Freud also appears to inappropriately superimpose some of the values of his own time, namely the suppression of homosexuality, onto the ancient Greeks. In doing so he loses the context of the myth.

References

^[1] Villing, A. (2005), ‘Introduction: Building a Myth’ in Classical Athens, British Museum Press, P. 6.

^[2] Caspo, E. (2005), ‘Psychology: Psychoanalysisto Myth Analysis’ in Theories of Mythology, England: Blackwell Publishing, P. 91.

^[3] Morales, H. (2007), ‘On the Analyst’s Couch’ in Classical Mythology: A very short introduction, P. 70.

^[4] Morales, H. (2007), ‘What if psychoanalysis had chosen another myth’ in Classical Mythology: A very short introduction, P. 75.

Bibliography

Armstrong, R. H. A Compulsion for Antiquity: Freud and the Ancient World, Cornell University Press, 2005.

Caspo, E. Theories of Mythology, England: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.

Dougherty, C. Prometheus, London and New York: Routledge Publishing, 2006.

Glenn, J. ‘Psychoanalytic Writings on Classical Mythology and Religion: 1909-1960’, 1976.

Guisepi, R. Economy and Society in Classical Greece, (1998), Internet WWW page at URL: http://history-world.org/greece%20economy.htm, (Accessed 27.1.11).

Hesiod, Theogony and Works and Days, Translated by L. M. West, New York: Oxford World’s Classics, 2008.

Morales, H. Classical Mythology, New York: Oxford University Press Inc 2007.

Osdorne, R. The World of Athens: An Introduction to Classical Athenian Culture, England: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Villing, A. Classical Athens, London: British Museum Press, 2005.


Illustrations
Figure 1: Freud
Figure 2: Prometheus

Analysing a pictorial representation of a myth

This Athenian Red-figured wine bowl, figure 1, circa 460-450 BC, is attributed to the Niobid Painter. The scene depicts, from the myth of Prometheus in Hesiod’s Theogony, the creation of the first woman, Pandora, who is acknowledged as both a blessing and a curse for men.

The upper scene of this vase illustrates the gods preparing Pandora, who stands facing forward in a stiff rigid pose reminiscent of a sculpture. This statuesque depiction could be seen as significant, as the gods are creating her, she may not be complete and has not yet been brought to life.

The lower half of the vase depicts a frieze of dancing and playing satyrs. This lower frieze presents a man playing the pipes and many satyrs dancing and singing to this music. Further round to the back of the vase there is a maenad and a satyr father with his child^[1].

As a viewer of the artwork, you are forced to focus on this particular part of the myth, the creation of the first woman on Earth. Interestingly the first time I saw this vase, I momentarily interpreted the scene somewhat differently to the myth. Without the knowing the myth one could easily presume that the central figure of Pandora was the deity and that those around her were lining up to pay homage.

The name Pandora, suitably meaning ‘all gifts’, is appropriate as this scene from the upper frieze, figure 2, demonstrates the gods approaching Pandora one by one to bestow gifts or curses upon her. Aphrodite is shown offering up a myrtle wreath, a symbol of hope and immortality, while other gods move around the scene. Beside Aphrodite to the right stands Poseidon with his trident in hand, and to the left stands Ares with both spear and shield. Several other gods appear further round in this frieze including Hephaistos, Athena, Zeus and Hermes.

The goddess Athena dressed Pandora in fine clothes and garlands and taught her the art of weaving, Hermes endowed her with lies, a deceitful nature and the gift of speech.

This vase, as I have said is a krater. Its purpose was primarily for storing wine, which would have then been poured into a smaller decorated cup for drinking, commonly used for parties known as symposiums. These types of vases or goblets typically depicted celebrations, other symposiums or the god of wine Dionysos among his following of satyrs. This krater could be interpreted as a celebration of the gods’ creation Pandora, even though she was sent into the world as a Kalon Klakon, a 'beautiful evil' or ‘necessary evil’. Could they have been pleased with this woman they created as a gift and a curse for mankind?

This would have been an interesting subject for a vase at a drinking party. These symposiums were mostly male dominated and, given myth which the vase portrays, perhaps it could have inspired some lively male banter about the benefits or otherwise of the female gender.

References

^[1] The British Museum, The creation of Pandora above a frieze of dancing and playing satyrs, Red-figured wine bowl, Internet WWW page at URL: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/r/wine_bowl,_athens.aspx, (Accessed 27.1.11).

Bibliography

Burn, L. The British Museum Book of Greek and Roman Art, London: The British Museum Press, 2005.

Hesiod, Theogony and Works and Days, Translated by L. M. West, New York: Oxford World’s Classics, 2008.

Osdorne, R. The World of Athens: An Introduction to Classical Athenian Culture, England: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

The British Museum, The creation of Pandora above a frieze of dancing and playing satyrs, Red-figured wine bowl, Internet WWW page at URL: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/r/wine_bowl,_athens.aspx, (Accessed 27.1.11).

Woodford, S. The Art of Greece and Rome, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Illustrations

Figure 1: The creation of Pandora above a frieze of dancing and playing satyrs. Red-figured wine bowl (calyx-krater), attributed to the Niobid Painter, Athenian circa 460-450 BC, Found at Altamura, Puglia, Italy.

Figure 2: Close-up of: The creation of Pandora above a frieze of dancing and playing satyrs. Red-figured wine bowl (calyx-krater), attributed to the Niobid Painter, Athenian circa 460-450 BC, Found at Altamura, Puglia, Italy.

The creation of woman: A blessing and a curse

Both the stories of Pandora and Eve attempt to probe the origins of evil and explain why man must endure suffering and death. Many cultures have grappled with these ideas and it is striking that the biblical explanation of evil is so comparable to that in classical mythology. Whether Eve or Pandora came first is irrelevant, historically these women have been viewed as the downfall of mankind.

Max Müller, a philologist who studied language written in historical sources, is generally regarded as the founder of comparative mythology, something that has become somewhat more widely explored since the age of European Imperialism^[1]. He concluded that before civilization took hold in the ancient world, primitive men used myth as a vessel to explain their surroundings and particular circumstances. He believed that, over time as the population increased and man voyaged further to new parts of the world, different languages and customs developed. Müller considered different versions of myths to be the result of the language barrier between newly emerged cultures.

Particular attention has been paid to both the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian accounts of creation myths. Each should be explored to determine whether the idea, women being responsible for the fall of mankind, could just be the result of sexist storytellers, after all both Eve and Pandora were created after men, this reinforces the male dominance of society whilst also depicting these women as something almost alien. There had never before been anything like a mortal woman seen by mankind, this new creation was both weird and wonderful, something to be wary of, yet also something extraordinarily intriguing.

Man originally existed peacefully without women and one can draw a comparison between Eden and the Golden Age of man. Both were a utopia for mankind to live freely without toil. They were the tranquil ideal of a world where nothing could ail you and men could live comfortably alongside one other.

The book of Genesis depicts the creation of the first woman, Eve, being forged from the rib of Adam; “So the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon man, and he slept; then he took one of his ribs and closed up its place with flesh. And the rib that the Lord God had taken from the man he made into a woman and brought her to the man. Then the man said, ‘This at last is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; this one shall be called Woman, for out of Man this one was taken'"^[2].

Later, Eve is tempted by the Serpent to eat the forbidden fruit of the tree; “Your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil” ^[3], and subsequently she and Adam are cast out of Eden.

The Serpent in this story takes on the role of a trickster, not unfamiliar to the character of Prometheus from Hesiod’s work, where we see an almighty god punish mankind for a non-human character’s interference. Not only this but a comparison can also be drawn between the punishments of the Serpent and of Prometheus, for each were mutilated by a mighty god. Prometheus was tied to a rock and doomed to have his liver pecked out by an eagle and the Serpent was condemned to lose his legs and have to slither on his belly.

Although the Serpent tempted Eve, it was God who put the forbidden tree in Eden in the first place. God’s human creations had an inquisitive nature, as this was how he made them, so does this mean that the tree and the trickster were all a test of will power for Adam and Eve? Did God want them to fail from the beginning?

This idea is also very comparable with Hesiod’s Theogony. One can interpret Zeus’ actions in such a way that makes it seem like he wanted to punish humans, but just needed a reason to do so. “Zeus, whose wisdom is everlasting, saw and failed not to perceive the trick, and in his heart he thought mischief against mortal men which also was to be fulfilled”^[4]. Zeus could see the trick that cunning Prometheus was carrying out, yet he decided to let things continue. The almighty and omnipotent power of Zeus is emphasised by Hesiod’s repetitive use of language; “Zeus, whose wisdom is everlasting”, once again close by in the text. Zeus really is wise and powerful, but by pretending not to see the trick he eventually allows it to play out to his advantage.

Figure 1

In each myth the humans display rather hubristic behaviour as they are tempted by the offer of their eyes being opened so that they can see as the gods do, or they are tempted by fire to live like the gods. As I have previously said, humans were built with a questioning nature; therefore can they really be to blame for these actions? The concept of discussing a creation myth is, after all, proof of their inquisitive natures. Regardless of the intentions behind Pandora’s creation, she was never specifically told not to open the box of evils, unlike Eve who explicitly disobeyed an order, and ate the forbidden fruit. It is my opinion that Pandora may have been wrongly accused as the reason for the ‘downfall of mankind’. Can she really be blamed for her curiosity?

The nature of each religion is highlighted in the way Pandora and Eve are created. Pandora is a product of many gods each bestowing a different characteristic upon her. Some of these are seen as a blessing whereas others are a curse. Eve however was created by one god, whose sole intention was for Eve to be a helper and companion for Adam, even though she later turns out to be something of a curse by eating the forbidden fruit and tempting Adam to do the same.

The myths contained in the Theogony, Works and Days, and Genesis are thematically intertwined, all attempting an explanation for the root of evil in our world, why humans must suffer and essentially what roles both sexes must play. These myths primarily allow one to question the actions of the gods and ask whether their creations were destined to fail from the beginning.

References

^[1] Caspo, E. (2005), ‘Comparative Approaches’, in Theories of Mythology, England: Blackwell Publishing, P. 10.

 ^[2] ‘Genesis: book 2’ in The Bible: King James Version, Internet WWW page at URL: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/k/kjv/kjv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1477, (Accessed 27.1.11).

 ^[3] ‘Genesis: book 3’ in The Bible: King James Version, Internet WWW page at URL: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/k/kjv/kjv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1477, (Accessed 27.1.11).

^[4] Hesiod, Translated by L. M. West, (2008) ‘Theogony’ in Theogony and Works and Days, New York: Oxford World’s Classics, P. 19.

Bibliography

Caspo, E. Theories of Mythology, England: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.

Dougherty, C. Prometheus, London and New York: Routledge Publishing, 2006.

Hesiod, Theogony and Works and Days, Translated by L. M. West, New York: Oxford World’s Classics, 2008.

Morales, H. Classical Mythology, New York: Oxford University Press Inc 2007.

The Bible: King James Version, (No Date), The Book of Genesis, Internet WWW page at URL: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/k/kjv/kjv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1477, (Accessed 27.1.11).


Illustrations
Figure 1: Zeus. This image can be seen to represent the almighty power of Zeus.

Myth and Ritual.

As I have discussed beforehand a number of myths are etiological, crafted from different cultural teachings, and essentially grounded in faith. Religious practices across many cultures use both myth and ritual as fundamental components, and although the two are commonly seen paired at the core of religion, the exact relationship has been a matter of controversy hotly debated among scholars alike for a number of years.

According to the ‘Myth and Ritual’, or ‘Myth-Ritualist’ theory, myth does not stand by itself but is in fact tied to ritual, and it is not just a statement but also an action. The Scottish Biblicist William Robertson Smith, who argued that belief is central to modern religion but not to ancient religion, where instead ritual was central, pioneered the myth-ritualist theory.[i] Hesiod’s Theogony provides a good example of myth and ritual in the ancient world.

[‘..For when the gods and mortal men had a dispute at Mekone, even then Prometheus was audacious to cut up a great ox and set portions before them, trying to fool the mind of Zeus. Before the rest he set flesh and inner parts thick with fat upon the hide, covering them with an ox paunch; but for Zeus he put the white bones dressed up with cunning art and covered with shining fat…With both hands he took up the white fat and was angry at heart, and wrath came to his spirit when he saw the white ox-bones craftily tricked out: and because of this the tribes of men upon earth burn white bones to the deathless gods upon fragrant altars.’][ii]


This passage from the text illustrates the myth of Prometheus, and both the gods and mortal men are present, having a dispute at Mekone whilst attending a sacrifice. This event shows how Prometheus hides the white bones of the slaughtered ox and covers them with glistening fat. It is the sight of these bones that causes Zeus’s spirit to become wrathful and he banishes mortal men from the tables of the gods, and orders them to burn white bones to the deathless gods upon fragrant altars. For the Ritualists, sacrifice was seen as possibly the most important ritual there was, and it was valued highly above all others.

We are able to understand from this passage that sacrificial rituals were a feast for both gods and humans alike. Freeing the bones from the meat, wrapping them in fat and burning them were essential parts of Greek sacrifice, and bones formed the core of a ritual.[iii] Hesiod explains that the more valuable cooked meat was kept as nourishment for the mortals, yet the inedible bones were burnt for the gods so that the smell could rise up to the heavens.

Today we understand the ritual burning of bones at an altar to have enabled communication with the gods, tying together the concepts of ritual and mythical figures within religion. This ritual practice of burning bones became a recollection of the sacrifice at Mekone and also signified the separation between gods and men. Once again the idea of etiology is brought back into mythology, this myth explains why the Greeks had animal sacrifices and why it was the bones of the animal offered up to the gods, not the meat.

The peninsula, which constitutes modern day Greece, was never politically united in antiquity. Whenever a Greek wanted to assert their ‘Greekness’ they did so, not with reference to territory but to gods, language, blood and customs. Essentially Greece was where those who were Greek lived.[iv]

Myths, rituals, beliefs, or even ‘religion’ would have been a comforting constant in the lives of the ancient Greeks. Whilst explaining their alien world and giving order to society, they would also have been something that the people could cling to in troubled times, something familiar that had been passed down from one generation to the next.

While Christians and Jews believe that there is one God whose characteristics are that of love and forgiveness, the Greeks believed in many gods. Each of these gods had separate personalities and characteristics parallel to those of humans. It is these beliefs, or religion, that became a means of shared identity for the ancient Greeks, a nation divided by extremes in social classes and differences between each city-state, otherwise known as the polis. This religion was embedded in society as a social and public concept which, when shared throughout the land, made the Greeks less foreign to one another.

Although the Myth-Ritualists see myth and ritual as united, this is not always the case. One could argue that even though myths and rituals often appear together, not all myths have, or had, a corresponding ritual, or vice versa. Walter Burkert, a modern classicist, believes that myths and rituals were originally independent and when the two do come together, they do so to reinforce each other.[v]

There are many arguments discussing the exact relationship between myth and ritual, and to an extent, nothing is really definitive. However I consider Burkert’s theory to be a rational approach to the study of myth and ritual and I believe this idea seems plausible, given the range and diversity of myths we know about today.

References
[i] ‘Myth and Ritual’, Internet WWW site at URL:http://science.jrank.org/pages/10367/Myth-Myth-Ritual.html (Accessed 05.10.10).

[ii] Hesiod, Translation by M. L. West, (2008). ‘Theogony’. United Kingdom: Oxford World's Classics. P. 19.

[iii] Gunnel Ekroth, ‘Bare bones: osteology and Greek sacrifice’. Internet WWW page at URL: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/classics/staff/animalsacrifice/ekroth.pdf (Accessed 05.10.10).

[iv] Osborne, R. (2008), ‘Environment and Settlement in Athens and Attike’, in ‘The World of Athens, An Introduction to classical Athenian Culture’, New York: Cambridge Unversity Press, P. 58.

[v] Burkurt, W. (2004), ‘Ritual and sanctuary, Function and methods’ in ‘Greek Religion’, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing, P.75.

What are myths?

What are myths and why do we have them? A myth is some form of story based on tradition or legend, which has a deep symbolic meaning. Stories and the art storytelling are common among all cultures, and storytellers have catered for the need of a 'good story' since the beginning of civilization.


My question is now, why do we have myths? From my understanding, myths are traditionally used to explain universal beginnings, and often involve supernatural beings. For example, Hesiod’s Theogony explains the origins of the Gods, their genealogies and the events that led to the establishment of Zeus as their king[i]. So, mythology is etiological, myths are born with the sole purpose of explaining things.

The Greeks and Romans lived in high degrees of uncertainty and chose to believe that things beyond human control, for instance the unpredictability of weather, fertility or incomprehensible events such as meteorites, were due to the decisions and actions of divine powers[ii]. Anything abnormal was seen to indicate the intervention of a divinity and this supposed experience of intervention became encapsulated in myths. Thus a myth was born and a story was told.

These sort of stories were narrated to show people how to understand their world and a good story would provide excitement for those who heard it. The meanings of these stories, to the culture in which they came about, are a major reason why they have survived as long as they have done. This is sometimes for thousands of years.


The ancient literature we know about today is full of examples of unusual events being assumed to herald divine intervention. Ancient Greek mythology tells of a great battle between the Olympians and the Titans, essentially a battle between Zeus and his father Kronos to become ruler of all gods. Zeus rose up with the help of his siblings and defeated the Titans in an epic struggle, supposedly situated on a great battlefield on the island of Santorini. This battle would have occurred during the time of the great eruption, one of the ten largest eruptions in the history of the world. Almost 1.1 trillion cubic feet of ash was blown over land and sea reaching as far away as Alaska and a tidal wave, of almost 100 feet in height, exploded across the sea to Crete and destroyed the remainder of Minoan Settlements. Was this myth ancient man's attempt at understanding the horrendous force of nature that occurred on the island?

The status of myth is well revealed in Herodotos’ famous statement that it was primarily from Homer and Hesiod that we came to know about the gods [iii]. In Book one of Homer’s Iliad a plague strikes the Greek army outside Troy and Achilles’ response to this, was to consider how the god responsible might be appeased[iv].

Every part of life and many places within the ancient world were inhabited by the presence of the gods and myths helped to define the human condition in relation to that of the gods.


So if a myth is based on a tradition or legend, riddled with symbolic meaning, which explains to those who hear it the problems of the universe, then can something this complex really be true? Today we generally regard myths as something false, something our ancestors resorted to for understanding the world, passing time or a moral story told to naughty children. What we, as a modern society, don’t consider is that there are many types of truth. Some are objective, some subjective. Some logical, some intuitive. Some cultural, some universal. Some are based on evidence and others depend on faith.

Whilst there are some myths that are accounts of actual events, the settings may have been altered. These stories take on symbolic meanings, they may have been shifted in time, or changed place and sometimes even the names are varied.


The more critical thinkers of the ancient world, such as the philosopher Plato, recognized that myths contained a considerable element of fiction, as we know they do today. When it comes to myths, Plato presents an ambiguous point of view. He regards some truth to be found in myth, but not entirely: "we begin by telling children fables, and the fable is, taken as a whole, false, but there is truth in it also"[v]. He, like many modern thinkers, considers a myth to be a story that is based on a tradition or legend, which has a deep symbolic meaning. He clearly believes, as we do today, that the myth itself may be true or false, but the meaning is always true. What I mean to say is, there is usually some sort of moral lesson one can take away from a myth.

Ancient myths were told to help people understand their world, and it is amazing that today they still serve the same purpose; they are helping us to understand the ancient world. Creation myths, included in various parts of Hesiod and Homer’s works, allow modern scholars to delve as far back into literary history as we can possibly go. Ancient myths have brought the modern world a rich source of art and literature that can be applied across many aspects of life today. Mythology became a subject greatly depicted in the art world, particularly during the Italian Renaissance. Many artists such as Boticelli, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo have contributed to the immense quantity of mythical paintings we have today. There is also a popular trend in modern movies to depict mythical stories such as the legend of Perseus in ‘The Clash of the Titans’.

Not all mythology, however, dates from the days of ancient cultures. People continue to create new myths and to rework existing ones all around the world today. Modern technologies such as publishing and the Internet allow legends, folktales, and myths to travel faster and reach more people than ever before.

Like all myths and legends, modern mythology comes from a sense of life's questions, pleasures, mysteries, and fears. Once again similar to traditional myths, modern legends suggest that good behavior will be rewarded and that evil behavior will be punished. Some modern legends reflect people's fears whilst others appeal to their desire to find meaningful patterns beneath the confusing chaos of everyday life.


One is drawn to the conclusion that a myth essentially 'conveys a truth' to those who tell it and hear it, rather than necessarily recording a true event. A myth is a truth that is fundamentally subjective, intuitive, cultural, and grounded in faith.

References
[i] Hesiod, Translation by M. L. West, (2008), ‘Introduction’, in ‘Theogony’, United Kingdom: Oxford World's Classics, P. 10.

[ii] Osborne, R. (2008), ‘Gods and Festivals’, in ‘The World of Athens, An Introduction to classical Athenian Culture’, New York: Cambridge Unversity Press, Pp. 86-87.

[iii] Herodotos, Translation by R. Waterfield, (2008), ‘Histories’, New York: Oxford Unversity Press.

[iv] Homer, Translated by E. V. Rieu, Updated by P. Jones (2003), ‘Book 1: Plague and Wrath’ in ‘The Iliad’, United Kingdom: Penguin Classics, Pp. 3-20.

[v] Stenudd, S. ‘Plato on Truth’, Internet WWW page at URL: http://www.stenudd.com/myth/greek/plato.html (Acccessed 12.10.10)